## Introduction
- **Journey Across a Thousand Years:** We will explore the thoughts of philosophers over a thousand years.
- **Focus on Philosophers:** Learn about their attempts to understand their world.
- **Compilation of Ideas:** See how their ideas were recorded in oral and written texts.
- **Expression in Arts:** Discover their influence through architecture and sculpture.
- **Enduring Influence:** Understand how these thinkers impacted people for a long time.
## Focus on Buddhism
- **Primary Focus:** The chapter mainly focuses on Buddhism.
- **Interconnected Traditions:** Remember that Buddhism developed alongside other traditions.
- **Debates and Dialogues:** These traditions often engaged in debates and discussions with each other.
## Sources for Reconstruction
- **Historical Sources:** Historians use various sources to understand these ideas and beliefs.
- **Types of Texts:**
- **Buddhist Texts**
- **Jaina Texts**
- **Brahmanical Texts**
- **Material Remains:** Include monuments and inscriptions.
## Important Monument: The Stupa at Sanchi
- **Preservation:** The stupa at Sanchi is one of the best-preserved monuments from this time.
- **Focus in the Chapter:** The stupa at Sanchi will be a major point of discussion.
**Exploring Sanchi in the Nineteenth Century**
**Introduction**
- Sanchi, a small village near Bhopal in India, was home to remarkable ancient buildings in the 19th century.
- It is situated about 20 miles northeast of Bhopal, nestled beneath a hill.
**Description of Sanchi's Ancient Buildings**
- The village of Sanchi is renowned for its ancient stone sculptures and statues of Buddha.
- Visitors in the 19th century were fascinated by these historical treasures.
- Notably, there is an ancient gateway that adds to the allure of Sanchi.
**Interest of European Gentlemen**
- European gentlemen found the ruins of Sanchi to be highly intriguing.
- Major Alexander Cunningham, a notable figure, spent weeks in the area during the 19th century.
- He meticulously studied the ruins, creating drawings and deciphering inscriptions.
- Cunningham even conducted excavations by drilling into the ancient domes.
**Major Alexander Cunningham's Contributions**
- Major Alexander Cunningham made significant contributions to understanding Sanchi's history.
- He documented his findings in an English publication, detailing the results of his investigations.
- Cunningham's work became pivotal in shedding light on the mysteries of Sanchi's ancient ruins.
**Conclusion**
- Sanchi, with its ancient buildings and the work of Major Alexander Cunningham, remains a key site of historical interest.
- It continues to attract scholars and visitors alike, offering insights into India's rich cultural heritage.
Certainly! Here's a detailed breakdown of the text with titles and subtitles using simple and easy English:
---
**A Glimpse of Sanchi**
**1. European Interest in Sanchi**
- **Nineteenth-century Fascination**: During the 1800s, Europeans were deeply intrigued by the stupa at Sanchi.
- **French Interest**: The French sought permission from Shahjehan Begum to take the eastern gateway of the stupa to France for display in a museum.
- **English Interest**: Englishmen also considered taking the gateway but settled for plaster-cast copies instead.
- **Preservation Efforts**: Thankfully, both the French and English were satisfied with copies, allowing the original to remain in Bhopal.
**2. Contribution of Bhopal's Rulers**
- **Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum**: Rulers of Bhopal, they provided funds for preserving the ancient site of Sanchi.
- **Support for John Marshall**: Sultan Jehan Begum supported John Marshall, who dedicated his important volumes on Sanchi to her.
- **Museum and Guesthouse**: She funded the museum and guesthouse where Marshall stayed and wrote his volumes.
- **Publication Support**: She also funded the publication of Marshall's volumes, contributing significantly to Sanchi's preservation.
**3. Preservation Challenges and Success**
- **Threats to Sanchi**: The site faced risks from railway builders and those seeking artifacts for European museums.
- **Survival**: Due to wise decisions and luck, Sanchi survived these threats and remained part of Bhopal state.
- **Archaeological Significance**: Sanchi is one of the most important Buddhist centers, transforming our understanding of early Buddhism.
**4. Current Importance**
- **Archaeological Survey of India**: Today, Sanchi stands as a testament to successful restoration and preservation efforts by the Archaeological Survey of India.
- **Monument's Significance**: The stupa complex raises questions about its purpose, contents, and construction.
- **Historical Context**: To understand Sanchi, we must explore Buddhist texts, sculptures, architecture, and inscriptions.
- **Discovery and Exploration**: The discovery of Sanchi unveils a fascinating story about early Buddhism and its development.
---
This breakdown covers the key points from the text about Sanchi, highlighting its historical importance, preservation efforts, and the roles of various individuals and organizations in safeguarding this ancient site.
Sure, let's break down the key points in simple English:
### 1. Turning Point in World History (Mid-1st Millennium BCE)
- **Emergence of Thinkers**: Around 500 to 600 BCE, significant thinkers appeared in different parts of the world. These include Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi (Confucius) in China, and in Greece, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. India saw the rise of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.
- **Quest for Understanding**: These thinkers were curious about life's mysteries and how humans fit into the larger cosmic order of the universe.
### 2. Context in the Ganga Valley
- **Development of Kingdoms and Cities**: During this period, new kingdoms and cities were emerging in the Ganga valley region of India.
- **Social and Economic Changes**: Society was going through various changes. People's ways of life, how they interacted socially, and how they earned a living were all evolving.
### 3. Philosophical Exploration
- **Interpretation of Developments**: The thinkers mentioned were not only pondering life's mysteries but also trying to make sense of the societal changes happening around them.
- **Influence of Cosmic Order**: They explored the idea of a cosmic order or universal laws that governed human existence and the world.
### 4. Cultural Impact
- **Legacy of Ideas**: The ideas put forward by these thinkers would go on to profoundly influence the cultures and philosophies of their respective regions and beyond.
- **Enduring Influence**: Even today, the teachings of Socrates, Buddha, Confucius, and others continue to shape moral, ethical, and philosophical discussions globally.
This period marked a pivotal moment in human history, where intellectual thought and philosophical inquiry laid the foundation for many ideas and beliefs that endure to this day.
Sure, here's a simplified breakdown of the sacrificial traditions described:
### 1. Early Vedic Tradition (c. 1500-1000 BCE)
- **Origins**: The tradition originates from the Rigveda, a collection of hymns.
- **Purpose**: Hymns were sung to honor various deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma.
- **Context**: Sacrifices were central, involving prayers for blessings such as cattle, sons, health, and long life.
- **Execution**: Initially, sacrifices were collective, involving entire communities.
### 2. Evolution of Sacrifices (c. 1000-500 BCE)
- **Transition**: Sacrifices shifted to being performed by household heads.
- **Focus**: Aimed at ensuring the well-being of individual families.
- **Role of Priests**: Brahmana priests played a key role in conducting rituals.
### 3. Elaborate Sacrifices
- **Types**: Included ceremonies like rajasuya and ashvamedha.
- **Participants**: Conducted by chiefs and kings.
- **Purpose**: These rituals aimed to assert authority and ensure prosperity.
- **Priestly Involvement**: Brahmana priests were essential for the performance and proper execution of these rituals.
### Summary
The sacrificial traditions evolved from communal practices in early Vedic times, where hymns were chanted to deities like Agni and Indra. Over time, rituals became more personalized, with household heads performing sacrifices for their families. Elaborate ceremonies such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha were reserved for chiefs and kings, emphasizing their authority and prosperity, and requiring the expertise of Brahmana priests to conduct these rituals effectively.
Certainly! Here's a breakdown of the provided text in simple and easy English:
**1. Curiosity About Life's Meaning and Rebirth:**
- In ancient times, especially from the 6th century BCE onward, people were very curious about deep questions.
- They wondered about the meaning of life, whether life continued after death, and the concept of rebirth.
- One key debate was whether rebirth happened due to past actions (karma).
- These questions were actively discussed and debated among thinkers.
**2. Exploration of Ultimate Reality:**
- Thinkers in the Vedic tradition were deeply interested in understanding and explaining what they believed to be the ultimate reality.
- Some thinkers outside this tradition questioned whether there was a single ultimate reality at all.
- This led to various philosophical speculations and debates.
**3. Significance of Sacrificial Tradition:**
- People also began to question the significance of the sacrificial rituals that were prevalent in ancient times.
- This questioning reflects a broader exploration into the role and meaning of religious rituals in society.
**4. Debates and Discussions Among Buddhist Sects:**
- Buddhist texts mention lively debates among different schools of thought, numbering up to 64 sects.
- Teachers traveled extensively, trying to convince each other and the public about the validity of their philosophies.
- Debates often took place in specific locations like kutagarashalas (huts) or groves where mendicants gathered.
- Winning a debate could lead to followers of rival schools joining the victor's sect, influencing its growth or decline over time.
**5. Challenge to Vedic Authority:**
- Figures like Mahavira and the Buddha questioned the authority of the Vedas, which were central texts in the Brahmanical tradition.
- They emphasized individual agency, suggesting that men and women could strive to achieve liberation from worldly challenges.
- This was different from the Brahmanical view, which linked an individual’s existence to their birth caste or gender.
In summary, during this period in ancient India, there was intense curiosity and debate about profound questions such as the meaning of life, rebirth, the nature of reality, and the role of religious practices. These discussions were not only philosophical but also shaped religious and social thinking during that time
Sure, here's a simpler explanation of the verses from the Chhandogya Upanishad:
**Verse 1: The Nature of the Self**
- **About the Self**: This verse talks about the self that resides within our heart.
- **Size Comparison**: It says this inner self is smaller than tiny seeds like paddy or barley.
- **Spiritual Size**: Despite being small physically, it's spiritually bigger than the Earth, the space between things, and even heaven.
- **Meaning**: It shows how our inner self is incredibly vast and important.
**Verse 2: The True Sacrifice**
- **Wind as Sacrifice**: This verse says the wind itself is like a holy offering or sacrifice.
- **Purifying Power**: As the wind moves, it purifies everything it touches.
- **Symbolic Meaning**: This makes the wind a true symbol of sacrifice because it cleanses and makes things pure.
- **Universal Impact**: It affects everything around it, showing its spiritual significance.
These verses teach us that our inner self is greater than anything physical and that elements of nature, like the wind, can teach us spiritual lessons about purity and sacrifice.
Certainly! Here's a detailed breakdown of how Buddhist texts were prepared and preserved throughout history:
### 1. Oral Transmission of Buddha's Teachings
- **Oral Tradition**: Initially, the Buddha and other teachers conveyed their teachings orally, engaging in discussions and debates.
- **Audience**: Men, women, and possibly children attended these discourses and discussed what they heard.
### 2. Compilation of Buddha's Teachings after His Death
- **Council of Elders**: After the Buddha passed away around the 5th-4th century BCE, his teachings were compiled.
- **Location**: The compilation took place at Vesali (present-day Vaishali in Bihar, India) by senior monks known as "elders."
- **Tipitaka**: The compiled teachings were organized into the Tipitaka, meaning "three baskets," which held different types of texts.
### 3. Structure of Tipitaka
- **Vinaya Pitaka**: This basket contained rules and regulations for those who joined the monastic order (sangha).
- **Sutta Pitaka**: Included the Buddha's teachings and discourses.
- **Abhidhamma Pitaka**: Dealt with philosophical and doctrinal matters.
### 4. Transmission and Classification of Texts
- **Oral Transmission**: Initially, the texts were transmitted orally.
- **Written Records**: Later, they were written down and classified based on their length and subject matter.
### 5. Development of Additional Texts
- **Regional Histories**: As Buddhism spread to new regions like Sri Lanka, texts such as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa were written.
- **Content**: These texts contained regional histories and biographies of the Buddha.
### 6. Languages of Texts
- **Pali**: Some of the oldest texts are in Pali, the language of the original Tipitaka.
- **Sanskrit**: Later compositions were also written in Sanskrit.
- **Other Languages**: Tibetan texts also became significant in preserving Buddhist teachings.
### 7. Transmission to East Asia
- **Pilgrims and Translations**: Pilgrims like Fa Xian and Xuan Zang traveled from East Asia (e.g., China) to India to search for Buddhist texts.
- **Translation Efforts**: These texts were taken back to their countries and translated by scholars into their respective languages.
### 8. Preservation in Monasteries
- **Manuscripts**: Buddhist texts were preserved in manuscript form for several centuries.
- **Monastic Centers**: Monasteries across Asia played a crucial role in preserving and copying these manuscripts.
### 9. Modern Translations
- **Translation Efforts**: Modern scholars translate Buddhist texts from languages such as Pali, Sanskrit, and Tibetan into various languages for wider accessibility and study.
This comprehensive approach outlines how Buddhist teachings were initially transmitted orally, compiled into structured texts, spread to various regions, and were meticulously preserved and translated over centuries, ensuring their continuity and dissemination across different cultures and language
Certainly! Here's a breakdown of the conversation between King Ajatasattu and the Buddha, along with the teachings of Makkhali Gosala and Ajita Kesakambalin:
**1. Conversation with King Ajatasattu:**
- **Setting:** King Ajatasattu visits the Buddha.
- **Description:** The king tells the Buddha about teachings from Makkhali Gosala, another teacher.
- **Makkhali Gosala's Teaching:**
- Belief that neither wise nor foolish people can change their destiny through virtue or penance.
- Views pleasure and pain in life as predetermined and unchangeable.
- Compares life's course to an unwinding ball of string that cannot be altered.
**2. Teachings of Makkhali Gosala:**
- **Affiliation:** Makkhali Gosala was from the Ajivika tradition.
- **Beliefs:**
- Fatalistic outlook: Everything, including pleasure and pain, is predestined.
- Actions like virtue or penance do not alter one's fate.
- Samsara (cycle of birth and rebirth) dictates the course of life for both wise and foolish alike.
**3. Teachings of Ajita Kesakambalin:**
- **Affiliation:** Ajita Kesakambalin belonged to the Lokayata tradition (materialist).
- **Beliefs:**
- Denial of spiritual concepts such as alms, sacrifice, or an afterlife.
- Human beings are composed of the four elements (earth, water, fire, air), which disperse upon death.
- Dismisses the idea of life after death; believes in annihilation after life ends.
- Considers the talk of giving gifts or sacrifices as meaningless and foolish.
**4. Traditions of Ajivikas and Lokayatas:**
- **Ajivikas:**
- Known as fatalists who believed in predestination.
- Little direct textual evidence exists; their teachings are primarily known from mentions in other traditions.
- Viewed samsara as an unalterable cycle where pleasure and pain unfold as predetermined.
- **Lokayatas (or Carvakas):**
- Considered materialists who denied spiritual or metaphysical beliefs.
- Emphasized empirical evidence and sensory experience over religious doctrines.
- Rejected notions of an afterlife and spiritual practices like sacrifices or offerings.
In summary, these teachings reflect contrasting philosophical perspectives prevalent during the time of the Buddha, highlighting beliefs about fate, materialism, and the nature of existence.
Certainly! Here's a detailed summary of the text "The Message of Mahavira" in simple and easy English, organized into clear points with subtitles:
**1. Background of Mahavira and Jainism**
- Mahavira, originally named Vardhamana, lived in the sixth century BCE in North India.
- Jainism's core philosophy existed before Mahavira, with 23 earlier teachers known as tirthankaras.
- Tirthankaras guide people across the cycle of life and rebirth.
**2. Central Ideas of Jainism**
- Jainism teaches that everything in the world, including stones and water, has life.
- The principle of ahimsa, or non-violence, is crucial. It emphasizes not harming any living beings, including humans, animals, plants, and insects.
- Karma determines the cycle of birth and rebirth. To break free from this cycle, one must practice asceticism and penance.
- Monastic life is necessary for salvation. Jain monks and nuns take five vows: not to harm, steal, lie, to be celibate, and to own no property.
**3. Teachings of Mahavira**
- Mahavira's teachings were recorded by his followers, often in the form of stories to appeal to ordinary people.
- An example from the Uttaradhyayana Sutta tells of Queen Kamalavati urging her husband to renounce worldly pleasures for spiritual fulfillment.
- The emphasis is on detachment, penance, and the pursuit of dhamma (righteousness).
**4. Spread of Jainism**
- Jainism gradually spread across India. Like Buddhists, Jaina scholars wrote extensively in languages like Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil.
- Temples preserved manuscripts of Jain texts for centuries.
- Early Jaina devotees created some of the earliest stone sculptures found in India, depicting the tirthankaras and their teachings.
This summary covers the main points of "The Message of Mahavira" in a straightforward manner, highlighting the key aspects of Jain philosophy, Mahavira's teachings, and the spread of Jainism across ancient India.
Sure, here’s a simplified breakdown of the story of the Buddha and his quest for enlightenment:
**1. Early Life of Siddhartha:**
- Siddhartha was born into a noble family, the Sakya clan.
- He grew up in a palace and led a very sheltered life.
- His father wanted him to become a great king and kept him away from the harsh realities of the world.
**2. Siddhartha’s Awakening:**
- One day, Siddhartha went outside the palace and saw four things that changed him forever: an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a peaceful mendicant.
- He realized that everyone, including himself, would suffer from old age, sickness, and death.
- Seeing the peaceful mendicant made him want to find a way to end suffering.
**3. Renunciation and Seeking Truth:**
- Siddhartha decided to leave his comfortable life in the palace to seek answers to the suffering he had witnessed.
- He wandered and studied with various teachers, trying extreme methods like fasting, but none brought him the answers he sought.
**4. Enlightenment Under the Bodhi Tree:**
- Siddhartha meditated intensely under a Bodhi tree for several days.
- Finally, he achieved enlightenment or awakening.
- He understood the causes of suffering and the way to end it.
**5. Teaching the Dhamma:**
- After enlightenment, Siddhartha became known as the Buddha, which means the Enlightened One.
- He spent the rest of his life teaching others what he had learned.
- His teachings focused on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which are the principles for righteous living and ending suffering.
**6. Spread of Buddha’s Teachings:**
- Over time, the Buddha’s teachings spread across India and beyond, to places like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, China, Korea, and Japan.
- His message of peace, compassion, and mindfulness continues to influence millions of people around the world.
This story shows how Siddhartha became the Buddha and dedicated his life to helping others find peace and end suffering through his teachings.
Certainly! Here's a simplified and detailed pointwise summary of the teachings of the Buddha and the growth of Buddhism:
### Teachings of the Buddha
**1. Sources of Buddha's Teachings**
- The Buddha's teachings are gathered mainly from stories found in the Sutta Pitaka.
- Stories often emphasize reason and persuasion over supernatural displays.
**2. Core Philosophical Ideas**
- **Anicca (Impermanence):** The world is constantly changing.
- **Anatta (Soullessness):** There is nothing permanent or eternal in the world.
- **Dukkha (Suffering):** Suffering is inherent in human existence.
- Emphasis on moderation and ethical living.
**3. Views on the Divine and Social Order**
- The Buddha considered the social world a human creation, not of divine origin.
- Advised kings and householders to be humane and ethical.
**4. Path to Liberation**
- Individual effort and righteous action lead to liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
- Nibbana (Nirvana) is attained by extinguishing ego and desire.
- Followers are encouraged to be self-reliant in their spiritual journey.
### Followers of the Buddha
**1. Establishment of the Sangha**
- The Buddha founded the sangha, a community of monks (bhikkhus) who taught the dhamma (teachings).
- Monks lived simply and relied on alms for survival.
**2. Inclusion of Women**
- Initially, only men were admitted to the sangha.
- Ananda persuaded the Buddha to allow women, leading to the ordination of Mahapajapati Gotami as the first bhikkhuni (nun).
- Women became respected teachers (theris) within the sangha.
**3. Social Diversity in the Sangha**
- Followers came from various social backgrounds including kings, wealthy individuals, and ordinary people.
- Upon joining the sangha, social distinctions were set aside.
**4. Growth of Buddhism**
- Buddhism grew rapidly during and after the Buddha's lifetime.
- Attracted people dissatisfied with existing religions and societal changes.
- Emphasized conduct, values, metta (fellow feeling), and karuna (compassion).
This summary covers the key teachings of the Buddha and the evolution of Buddhism, highlighting its philosophical principles, community structure, and societal impact in simple English.
Certainly! Here's a breakdown of the verses from the Therigatha involving Punna and the Brahmana, simplified into clear points:
### Introduction to the Therigatha
1. **Text Overview**: The Therigatha is a Buddhist scripture containing verses by bhikkhunis (Buddhist nuns).
2. **Focus**: It gives insights into women's lives, both social and spiritual, in ancient times.
### Story of Punna and the Brahmana
1. **Punna's Background**:
- She was a dasi, which means a slave or servant woman.
- Her daily task was to fetch water from the river for her master's household.
- She did this out of fear of punishment or anger from higher-class women.
2. **Encounter at the River**:
- Each morning, Punna saw a Brahmana (a member of the priestly class in Hinduism) performing ritual baths in the river.
- She questioned him one morning about his actions.
3. **Punna's Question to the Brahmana**:
- Punna asked why the Brahmana, despite being of a high caste and doing sacred rituals, was afraid of the cold water during his morning baths.
- She pointed out that she, a lowly water carrier, faced the cold daily without complaint.
4. **The Brahmana's Response**:
- The Brahmana explained that he performed these rituals to cleanse himself of any wrongdoings or sins.
- He believed washing in the river water would purify him and others from evil deeds.
5. **Punna's Critique**:
- Punna challenged the Brahmana's belief, questioning whether mere water rituals could truly cleanse someone of their sins.
- She humorously suggested that if water alone could save souls, then creatures like frogs, turtles, water snakes, and crocodiles should also go to heaven.
6. **Punna's Advice**:
- Instead of relying on ritual baths, Punna advised the Brahmana to stop doing whatever deeds led him to fear and guilt.
- She urged him to save himself from the discomfort of cold water and focus on preventing sinful actions.
### Conclusion
1. **Moral Insight**:
- The verses highlight a critical view of ritualism versus moral action.
- Punna's wisdom emphasizes that true purity comes from avoiding wrong actions rather than relying on external rituals alone.
2. **Impact**:
- This exchange showcases the depth of philosophical and ethical discussion present in ancient Buddhist texts, offering a voice from a woman's perspective on spiritual matters.
This breakdown simplifies the interaction between Punna and the Brahmana, focusing on the key themes of ritual purity, moral action, and the value of personal responsibility in spiritual practice.
Sure, here's a simplified version:
### Rules for Monks from the Vinaya Pitaka
1. **Taking Care of New Blankets:**
- When monks make a new blanket, they must keep it for at least six years.
- If they make or get a new blanket sooner without permission, they have to give it up and admit their mistake.
2. **Accepting Food from People:**
- When monks visit someone's home, they can accept two or three bowlfuls of cakes or cooked food, if offered.
- Taking more than that without permission means they must admit they did wrong.
- They must share whatever they receive with other monks.
3. **Handling Bedding Properly:**
- If monks set up bedding in a place that belongs to their community or others, they must take care of it.
- Before leaving, they must put away their bedding or ask someone else to do it.
- If they leave without doing this or without permission, they must admit their mistake.
These rules help monks live responsibly, respect others' belongings, and share what they receive with their fellow monks.
### Growth of Buddhism
#### Rapid Expansion During and After Buddha's Life
- **Buddha's Lifetime**: Buddhism grew quickly during the Buddha's life.
- **After Buddha's Death**: The religion continued to expand rapidly after his passing.
#### Reasons for Popularity
##### Dissatisfaction with Existing Religious Practices
- Many people were unhappy with the current religious systems.
##### Confusion from Social Changes
- Rapid social changes left many people feeling confused and seeking new guidance.
### Key Ideas Attracting Followers
#### Conduct and Values Over Birth
- **Equality**: Buddhism emphasized good behavior and moral values.
- **Against Superiority**: It rejected the idea that some people are better because of their birth or caste.
#### Emphasis on Metta (Fellow Feeling)
- **Kindness**: Metta means having a kind and friendly attitude towards others.
- **Community**: This idea encouraged people to care for each other like family.
#### Importance of Karuna (Compassion)
- **Compassion**: Karuna means feeling and showing compassion.
- **Helping the Weak**: It stressed the importance of being compassionate, especially to those who are younger or weaker.
### Conclusion
- **Attraction to Buddhism**: These ideas of equality, kindness, and compassion drew many men and women to Buddhism.
### Stupas and Sacred Places in Buddhism
#### Interaction with Other Traditions
- **Dialogue with Other Traditions**: Buddhist ideas and practices emerged through interaction with Brahmanas, Jainas, and other traditions.
- **Preservation of Ideas**: Not all ideas and practices from these interactions were recorded in texts.
#### Sacred Places in Early Times
- **Natural Sacred Sites**: Certain natural sites with special trees, unique rocks, or awe-inspiring beauty were regarded as sacred.
- **Chaityas**: Small shrines at these sacred sites were sometimes called chaityas.
#### Buddhist Sacred Places
- **Mentions in Buddhist Literature**: Buddhist texts mention several chaityas.
- **Places Associated with Buddha’s Life**:
- **Lumbini**: The place where Buddha was born.
- **Bodh Gaya**: The place where Buddha attained enlightenment.
- **Sarnath**: The place where Buddha gave his first sermon.
- **Kusinagara**: The place where Buddha attained nibbana (final liberation).
#### Development of Sacredness
- **Gradual Recognition**: Over time, these places became widely regarded as sacred.
- **Asoka’s Pillar**: Around 200 years after Buddha's time, Emperor Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark his visit to the birthplace of Buddha.
### Why Were Stupas Built
1. **Sacred Places**:
- Stupas were built because certain places were regarded as sacred.
- This was because relics of the Buddha, such as his bodily remains or objects he used, were buried there.
2. **Origin and Association with Buddhism**:
- The tradition of erecting stupas may have existed before Buddhism.
- However, they became closely associated with Buddhism because they contained sacred relics.
3. **Symbol of Buddha and Buddhism**:
- Since stupas contained sacred relics, they were venerated as symbols of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
4. **Role of Ashoka**:
- According to the Buddhist text Ashokavadana, Emperor Ashoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to important towns.
- He ordered the construction of stupas over these relics.
5. **Examples of Early Stupas**:
- By the second century BCE, many stupas had been built, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath.
### How Were Stupas Built
1. **Inscriptions and Donations**:
- Inscriptions on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations for building and decorating them.
- Donations were made by various people, including kings like the Satavahanas and guilds such as ivory workers.
- Many donations were also made by common men and women, who sometimes mentioned their names, places, occupations, and relatives.
- Bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns) also contributed to building these monuments.
### The Structure of the Stupa
1. **Basic Form**:
- The word stupa means a heap and it started as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, called anda.
2. **Evolution into Complex Structures**:
- Over time, stupas became more complex, balancing round and square shapes.
3. **Harmika**:
- On top of the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods.
4. **Yashti and Chhatri**:
- Rising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often topped with an umbrella called a chhatri.
5. **Railing**:
- A railing surrounded the mound, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
6. **Design and Decoration**:
- Early stupas, like those at Sanchi and Bharhut, were plain except for stone railings resembling bamboo or wooden fences and richly carved gateways at the four cardinal points.
- Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked clockwise around the mound, imitating the sun’s path in the sky.
7. **Elaborate Carvings**:
- Later stupas, like those at Amaravati and Shahji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar, had elaborately carved mounds with niches and sculptures.
### Discovering Stupas
#### The Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi
Each stupa has its own unique history. Some of these histories are about how the stupas were built, while others are about their discoveries. Let's explore some of these discovery histories.
#### The Discovery of Amaravati
- **1796: Initial Discovery by a Local Raja**
- A local raja, seeking to build a temple, stumbled upon the ruins of the stupa at Amaravati.
- He decided to use the stone from the ruins and hoped to find treasure buried in what looked like a hill.
- **Early 1800s: Visit by Colin Mackenzie**
- Colin Mackenzie, a British official, visited Amaravati.
- He found several pieces of sculpture and made detailed drawings, but these reports were never published.
- **1854: Walter Elliot's Visit**
- Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur, visited Amaravati.
- He collected several sculpture panels and transported them to Madras. These sculptures were later called the Elliot marbles.
- Elliot discovered the remains of the western gateway and concluded that Amaravati's structure was one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist stupas ever built.
- **Dispersal of Amaravati Sculptures**
- By the 1850s, slabs from Amaravati were taken to various locations, including the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta, the India Office in Madras, and even to London.
- British administrators often displayed these sculptures in their gardens.
- New officials continued removing sculptures, following the precedent set by their predecessors.
#### H.H. Cole's Viewpoint
- **H.H. Cole's Opposition**
- Archaeologist H.H. Cole opposed the removal of sculptures.
- He argued that original works of ancient art should remain where they were found and suggested using plaster-cast facsimiles for museums instead.
- Despite his efforts, Cole failed to convince authorities about preserving Amaravati in situ.
#### The Preservation of Sanchi
- **Discovery of Sanchi in 1818**
- Sanchi was discovered in 1818 with three of its four gateways still standing and the fourth lying on the ground where it had fallen.
- Unlike Amaravati, Sanchi was preserved due to a better understanding of the importance of keeping artifacts in their original locations.
- **Suggestions and Decisions**
- It was suggested that Sanchi's gateway be sent to Paris or London.
- Ultimately, factors favored keeping Sanchi intact, preserving its structure and significance.
### Sculpture
#### Removal and Transportation
- **Removal of Sculptures**
- Sculptures from stupas were often removed and transported to Europe.
- This was partly because people considered these sculptures beautiful and valuable, wanting to keep them for themselves.
#### Stories in Stone
- **Artistic Storytelling**
- Sculptures often depicted scenes from stories, similar to how wandering storytellers used scrolls with pictures to narrate tales.
- **Example: The Vessantara Jataka**
- Art historians identified a rural scene sculpture at Sanchi as a depiction of the Vessantara Jataka.
- The Vessantara Jataka is a story about a generous prince who gave everything to a Brahmana and lived in the forest with his family.
- Historians compare sculptures with textual evidence to understand their meanings.
### Symbols of Worship in Buddhist Sculpture
#### Understanding Buddhist Sculpture through Hagiographies
- Art historians had to learn about the life stories (hagiographies) of the Buddha to understand early Buddhist sculpture.
- According to these stories, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree.
- Early sculptors often did not show the Buddha in human form but used symbols to indicate his presence.
#### Key Symbols in Buddhist Art
- **The Empty Seat**: This symbol indicates the Buddha's meditation and enlightenment (Fig. 4.14).
- **The Stupa**: Represents the Buddha's mahaparinibbana (his final passing away) (Fig. 4.15).
- **The Wheel**: Stands for the Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath (Fig. 4.16).
- These symbols are not literal. For example, a tree in the sculpture represents a significant event in the Buddha's life, not just a tree.
- Historians need to understand the traditions and context behind these symbols to interpret them correctly.
### Popular Traditions and Other Sculptures at Sanchi
#### Shalabhanjika Motif
- Some sculptures at Sanchi were not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas but by popular beliefs.
- **Beautiful Women Holding Trees**: Found on the gateways of Sanchi, scholars initially found these images puzzling.
- **Shalabhanjika**: According to Sanskrit tradition, a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit.
- This motif was likely considered auspicious and included in the stupa's decoration, showing how pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs were integrated into Buddhist art.
#### Animal Depictions
- Sanchi sculptures feature detailed depictions of animals like elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle.
- While some animals are connected to stories from the Jatakas (Buddhist tales), many were carved to create lively scenes and attract viewers.
- **Elephants**: Often symbolize strength and wisdom in these artworks.
#### Woman with Lotuses and Elephants
- Another common motif is a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, as if being consecrated with water (Fig. 4.19).
- Historians have different interpretations of this figure:
- Some identify her as Maya, the Buddha's mother.
- Others see her as Gajalakshmi, a goddess of good fortune associated with elephants.
- Devotees might have seen her as both Maya and Gajalakshmi.
#### Serpent Motif
- Serpents are frequently depicted on the pillars at Sanchi (Fig. 4.21).
- This motif comes from popular traditions that were not always recorded in texts.
- Early art historian James Fergusson thought Sanchi was a center of tree and serpent worship.
- Fergusson's conclusion was based on the images alone, as much of the Buddhist literature had not been translated during his time.
### Conclusion
- The sculptures at Sanchi demonstrate a blend of Buddhist, pre-Buddhist, and non-Buddhist traditions.
- Art historians must study both the visual symbols and the cultural context to fully understand these artworks.
### Development of Mahayana Buddhism
#### Changes in Buddhist Ideas and Practices
- By the first century CE, Buddhist ideas and practices began to change.
- Early Buddhism emphasized self-effort in achieving nibbana (nirvana).
- Buddha was seen as a human who attained enlightenment through his own efforts.
#### Emergence of the Saviour Concept
- Gradually, the idea of a saviour emerged in Buddhism.
- It was believed that this saviour could ensure salvation.
#### Concept of Bodhisattas
- The concept of Bodhisattas developed during this period.
- Bodhisattas were compassionate beings who accumulated merit.
- Instead of using this merit to attain nibbana and leave the world, they chose to help others.
- Worship of Buddha and Bodhisattas' images became important.
#### Mahayana Buddhism
- This new way of thinking was called Mahayana, meaning the "great vehicle".
- Mahayana followers described the older tradition as Hinayana, meaning the "lesser vehicle".
### Hinayana or Theravada?
- Supporters of Mahayana called the older Buddhist tradition Hinayana.
- Followers of the older tradition referred to themselves as Theravadins.
- Theravadins followed the path of old, respected teachers, the theras.
### Growth of Puranic Hinduism
#### Saviour Concept in Hinduism
- The idea of a saviour was also present in traditions of Hinduism.
- Vaishnavism and Shaivism emphasized the worship of a chosen deity.
- The bond between the devotee and the deity was seen as one of love and devotion (bhakti).
#### Vaishnavism and Avatars
- Vaishnavism developed cults around various avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu.
- Ten avatars were recognized within Vaishnavism.
- These avatars were believed to save the world from disorder and destruction caused by evil forces.
- Different avatars were popular in different parts of India.
- Recognizing local deities as forms of Vishnu helped create a unified religious tradition.
#### Depictions in Sculptures
- Deities were represented in sculptures.
- Shiva was symbolized by the linga and occasionally represented in human form.
- Sculptures depicted complex ideas through symbols like headdresses, ornaments, weapons (ayudhas), and how deities were seated.
#### Understanding Puranic Stories
- To understand these sculptures, historians must know the stories behind them, often found in the Puranas.
- Puranas were compiled by Brahmanas around the middle of the first millennium CE.
- They contained stories about gods and goddesses in simple Sanskrit verse, meant to be read aloud to all, including women and Shudras.
#### Evolution of Puranic Hinduism
- Puranic Hinduism evolved through interactions among priests, merchants, and ordinary people.
- For instance, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in Mathura.
- Over centuries, his worship spread to other parts of India.
### Building Temples
#### Early Temple Structures
- Around the same time as stupas at Sanchi were being built, the first temples for housing images of gods and goddesses were also constructed.
- Early temples were small square rooms called garbhagrihas with a single doorway for worshippers.
#### Evolution of Temple Architecture
- Gradually, a tall structure known as the shikhara was built over the central shrine.
- Temple walls were decorated with sculptures.
- Later temples became more elaborate with assembly halls, huge walls, gateways, and water supply arrangements.
#### Artificial Caves and Rock-Cut Temples
- Early temples included artificial caves hollowed out of rocks.
- This tradition began in the third century BCE with Asoka's orders for renouncers of the Ajivika sect.
- The tradition evolved and culminated in the eighth century with the carving of the entire Kailashnatha temple at Ellora.
- A copperplate inscription records the chief sculptor’s amazement after completing the temple: “Oh how did I make it!”
### Can We “See” Everything?
- **Past Visual Traditions**: There were rich visual traditions in the past, including architecture, sculpture, and painting.
- **Destruction Over Time**: Much of this art has been destroyed or lost over the centuries.
- **Preservation of Art**: What remains today helps us understand the vision of the artists, sculptors, masons, and architects.
- **Understanding the Past**: It's not always easy to understand what these artists wanted to convey.
- **Historical Perception**: It's challenging to know what these images meant to people who saw and revered them around 2,000 years ago.
#### 11.1 Grappling with the Unfamiliar
- **Nineteenth-Century European Scholars**: When these scholars first saw sculptures of gods and goddesses in India, they didn’t understand them.
- **Reaction to Sculptures**: They were sometimes horrified by what they saw as grotesque figures, with multiple arms, heads, or combinations of human and animal forms.
- **Comparing to Familiar Art**: These scholars tried to understand these strange images by comparing them to Greek sculptures, which they were familiar with.
- **Judgment of Quality**: They often thought early Indian sculptures were inferior to Greek ones.
- **Excitement About Buddha Images**: They were excited to find images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas that seemed based on Greek models.
- **Indo-Greek Influence**: These images were often found in places like Taxila and Peshawar, where Indo-Greek rulers had kingdoms in the second century BCE.
- **Familiarity Strategy**: The scholars used a common strategy of using familiar yardsticks to make sense of the unfamiliar.
#### If Text and Image Do Not Match …
- **Using Textual Traditions**: Art historians often use textual traditions to understand sculptures.
- **Efficacy of This Strategy**: This method is more effective than comparing Indian images with Greek statues, but it's still challenging.
- **Example from Mahabalipuram**: A famous sculpture on a huge rock surface in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, illustrates this problem.
- **Depiction of a Story**: The sculpture clearly tells a story, but which one?
- **Divided Opinions**: Art historians are divided on its interpretation.
- **Descent of the Ganga**: Some believe it depicts the descent of the Ganga from heaven, with the natural cleft in the rock representing the river. This story is in the Puranas and epics.
- **Mahabharata Story**: Others think it shows Arjuna doing penance by the river to acquire arms, pointing to the central figure of an ascetic.
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