### The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
#### Ambitious Scholarship Project
- **Initiation**: Began in 1919.
- **Leadership**: Led by V.S. Sukthankar, a notable Indian Sanskrit scholar.
- **Team Composition**: Included dozens of scholars.
#### Collecting Manuscripts
- **Sanskrit Manuscripts**: Gathered from different parts of India.
- **Variety of Scripts**: Manuscripts were written in various scripts.
#### Method of Comparison
- **Comparing Verses**: Verses from each manuscript were compared.
- **Selection of Verses**: Common verses across most versions were chosen.
- **Publication**: The selected verses were published in several volumes, totaling over 13,000 pages.
#### Duration and Findings
- **Time Taken**: The project took 47 years to complete.
- **Common Elements**: Common elements were found in Sanskrit versions from different regions, such as:
- Kashmir and Nepal in the north.
- Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south.
- **Regional Variations**: Notable regional differences in how the text was transmitted over time.
- **Documentation**: These variations were documented in footnotes and appendices.
### Reflections on Social Histories
#### Variations and Social History
- **Significance of Variations**: Reflect the complex processes shaping early and later social histories.
- **Dialogues**: Involve interactions between dominant traditions and local ideas and practices.
- **Conflict and Consensus**: These dialogues had moments of both conflict and agreement.
#### Understanding Social Histories
- **Primary Sources**: Mainly derived from Sanskrit texts written by and for Brahmanas.
- **Initial Historical Approach**: 19th and 20th-century historians initially believed these texts were fully reflective of actual practices.
- **Subsequent Studies**: Later, scholars studied other traditions in Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil.
- **New Findings**: These studies showed that while normative Sanskrit texts were generally seen as authoritative, they were also questioned and sometimes rejected.
- **Importance**: Important to consider these factors when historians reconstruct social histories.
### Finding Out About Families
1. **Variety in Families**
- Families are not all the same.
- Differences include the number of members, their relationships, and shared activities.
- Members often share food, resources, and participate in rituals together.
- Families are part of larger groups called kinfolk or relatives.
2. **Definition of Familial Ties**
- Familial ties are often seen as natural and based on blood relations.
- Different societies define familial ties in various ways.
- Example: Some societies consider cousins as blood relatives, while others do not.
3. **Historical Study of Families**
- Historians can easily find information about elite families from early societies.
- It is harder to learn about the families of ordinary people.
- Historians also study attitudes towards family and kinship.
- These attitudes give insights into people's thinking and actions.
### The Ideal of Patriliny
1. **Kinship Changes in History**
- The Mahabharata, an ancient epic, shows changes in kinship relations.
- It tells a story of a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas.
- The conflict ended in a battle, and the Pandavas won.
- After their victory, patrilineal succession was established.
2. **Patriliny and Succession**
- Patriliny means sons inherit resources from their fathers.
- This system was common among ruling dynasties from the sixth century BCE onwards.
- There were variations: sometimes brothers or other relatives succeeded, and rarely, women like Prabhavati Gupta held power.
- Patriliny was important not just for rulers but also for wealthy and high-status men, including Brahmanas.
### Rules of Marriage
1. **Importance of Sons**
- Sons were crucial for continuing the patrilineage.
- Daughters could not inherit household resources.
- Marrying daughters outside the kin group (exogamy) was preferred.
2. **Exogamy and Marriage Regulation**
- Exogamy: Marrying outside one's kin group.
- Daughters were often married at the right time and to the right person to fulfill social and religious duties.
- Kanyadana (the gift of a daughter in marriage) was seen as a religious duty for the father.
3. **Social Changes and Norms**
- New towns emerged, making social life more complex.
- People exchanged products and ideas, questioning old beliefs.
- Brahmanas created detailed social codes to maintain order.
- These codes were compiled in texts like the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, including the Manusmriti.
4. **Influence of Brahmanical Norms**
- Brahmana authors claimed universal validity for their social norms.
- Real social relations were more complex.
- Regional diversity and communication difficulties limited Brahmana influence.
5. **Forms of Marriage**
- Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognized eight forms of marriage.
- Four forms were considered good, while the other four were condemned.
- These texts suggest varying practices and some resistance to Brahmanical norms.
### Types of Marriages
1. **Endogamy**
- Marriage within a unit such as a kin group, caste, or locality.
2. **Exogamy**
- Marriage outside the unit.
3. **Polygyny**
- A man having several wives.
4. **Polyandry**
- A woman having several husbands.
In ancient India, the institution of marriage was deeply embedded in societal and religious customs. The ancient texts, especially the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata, describe eight forms of marriage, each with its distinct characteristics and implications. Here's a detailed explanation of each form:
1. **Brahma Vivaha (Brahma Marriage)**:
- **Description**: This is considered the most prestigious form of marriage. The bride's family offers her to a man of good character and learning, without expecting any dowry.
- **Example**: A learned Brahmin groom marries the daughter of a sage, chosen for his wisdom and virtues.
2. **Daiva Vivaha (Daiva Marriage)**:
- **Description**: This occurs when a bride's family, unable to find a suitable groom, gives her to a priest or a sage who officiates at a sacrifice. This was seen as second in honor to Brahma marriage.
- **Example**: A sage performing a yajna (sacrificial ritual) is given the host's daughter as a bride.
3. **Arsha Vivaha (Arsha Marriage)**:
- **Description**: In this type, the bride is given in exchange for two cows or a bull and a cow. This form of marriage underscores the simplicity and modesty of the bride and groom's families.
- **Example**: A Rishi (sage) receives a bride from her father after giving him two cows as a token.
4. **Prajapatya Vivaha (Prajapatya Marriage)**:
- **Description**: This form of marriage emphasizes mutual respect and duty. The father gives his daughter to the groom with the words, “May both of you perform together your duties,” highlighting the social and familial responsibilities over material transactions.
- **Example**: A father gives his daughter in marriage with blessings that they live harmoniously and fulfill their responsibilities together.
5. **Gandharva Vivaha (Gandharva Marriage)**:
- **Description**: Known as a love marriage, it involves the voluntary union of a young couple based on mutual attraction and consent, without formal ceremonies or parental approval.
- **Example**: Shakuntala and King Dushyanta's union, as described in the Mahabharata and Kalidasa’s play “Abhijnanasakuntalam,” where they marry each other in a forest.
6. **Asura Vivaha (Asura Marriage)**:
- **Description**: In this form, the groom offers wealth and valuable gifts to the bride’s family to gain her hand in marriage. This form was looked down upon as it equated marriage to a commercial transaction.
- **Example**: A wealthy merchant marries a bride after giving her family gold, cattle, and other riches.
7. **Rakshasa Vivaha (Rakshasa Marriage)**:
- **Description**: This type involves the groom forcibly carrying away the bride from her home, often after defeating her relatives in battle. It was common among warriors and was considered acceptable for Kshatriyas (warrior class).
- **Example**: In the Mahabharata, Bhima marries Hidimba after killing her demon brother Hidimb.
8. **Paishacha Vivaha (Paishacha Marriage)**:
- **Description**: This is the most condemned form of marriage, where a man seduces or abducts a woman while she is asleep, intoxicated, or mentally unstable. It was considered an immoral and unethical practice.
- **Example**: There are few celebrated examples of this form of marriage due to its highly unethical nature, but it might be referred to in stories where a man takes advantage of a woman's vulnerability.
These varied forms of marriage reflect the diversity and complexity of societal norms in ancient India. While some forms, like Brahma and Prajapatya marriages, emphasized dharma (duty) and mutual respect, others like Asura and Paishacha were discouraged for their materialistic or unethical nature.
### The Gotra of Women
#### Introduction to Gotras
- **Definition of Gotras**: A system to classify people, especially Brahmanas, from around 1000 BCE.
- **Origin**: Named after Vedic seers; members of a gotra were seen as descendants of that seer.
#### Brahmanical Rules About Gotras
- **Rule for Women**: Women were expected to leave their father's gotra and take their husband's gotra upon marriage.
- **Marriage Rule**: People from the same gotra could not marry each other.
#### Evidence from Satavahana Rulers
- **Ruling Period**: Ruled parts of western India and the Deccan (c. 2nd century BCE - 2nd century CE).
- **Inscription Analysis**: Names of Satavahana women often retained their father's gotra, like Gotama and Vasistha.
- **Polygyny**: Some rulers had multiple wives, showing diverse gotra names.
- **Same Gotra Marriages**: Some women married within the same gotra, contrary to Brahmanical rules.
#### Endogamy vs. Exogamy
- **Endogamy Practice**: Marriage within the kin group was common, especially in South India.
- **Community Impact**: Such marriages ensured closely knit communities.
#### Regional Variations
- **Diverse Practices**: There likely were variations in gotra practices across different regions of India, though specific details are not fully reconstructed.
### Importance of Mothers
#### Metronymics in Satavahana Rule
- **Metronymics**: Satavahana rulers were often identified by their mother's names.
- **Significance of Mothers**: This might suggest the importance of mothers.
- **Patrilineal Succession**: Despite metronymics, succession to the throne was mainly through the male line.
### Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
#### Caste System
- **Definition**: A hierarchical social structure.
- **Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras**: Ancient texts that outlined the ideal social order.
- **Hierarchy**: Brahmanas at the top, Shudras and "untouchables" at the bottom.
### The “Right” Occupation
#### Occupation Rules by Varna
- **Brahmanas**: Study and teach the Vedas, perform and get sacrifices performed, give and receive gifts.
- **Kshatriyas**: Warfare, protection, justice, Vedic study, getting sacrifices performed, and giving gifts.
- **Vaishyas**: Vedic study, getting sacrifices performed, giving gifts, agriculture, pastoralism, trade.
- **Shudras**: Serving the three higher varnas.
### Strategies for Enforcing Varna Norms
#### Brahmanical Strategies
- **Divine Origin**: Asserting that the varna system was divinely ordained.
- **King's Role**: Advising kings to enforce these norms.
- **Birth Determination**: Persuading people that their status was determined by birth.
### A Divine Order?
#### Purusha Sukta from Rigveda
- **Hymn Description**: Describes the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man.
- **Creation of Varnas**:
- Brahmana from the mouth.
- Kshatriya from the arms.
- Vaishya from the thighs.
- Shudra from the feet.
### Proper Social Roles
#### Story of Ekalavya from Mahabharata
- **Characters**: Drona (Brahmana teacher), Ekalavya (nishada, a hunting community member), Arjuna (Kuru prince).
- **Incident**: Ekalavya practiced archery using a clay image of Drona.
- **Conflict**: Displayed exceptional archery skill.
- **Drona's Demand**: Asked for Ekalavya's right thumb as a fee.
- **Outcome**: Ekalavya complied, losing his superior archery skill, ensuring Arjuna remained the best.
# Non-Kshatriya Kings and Social Mobility in Ancient India
## Non-Kshatriya Kings
### Shastras and Kshatriya Kings
- According to ancient texts (Shastras), only Kshatriyas could be kings.
- However, many important ruling families had different origins.
### The Mauryas
- The social background of the Maurya dynasty is debated.
- Later Buddhist texts suggest they were Kshatriyas.
- Brahmanical texts describe them as being of "low" origin.
### The Shungas and Kanvas
- The Shunga and Kanva dynasties, successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas (priestly class).
### Political Power and Birth
- Political power depended on the ability to gather support and resources, not strictly on being born a Kshatriya.
### The Shakas
- The Shakas, from Central Asia, were seen as mlechchhas (outsiders) by Brahmanas.
- Rudradaman, a famous Shaka ruler, rebuilt the Sudarshana lake, showing familiarity with Sanskritic traditions.
### The Satavahanas
- Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, a well-known Satavahana ruler, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of Kshatriya pride.
- He maintained no intermarriage among the four varnas but married into Rudradaman’s family.
### Integration and Caste
- The Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas but entered marriage alliances outside the prescribed system.
- They practiced endogamy (marrying within the same group) instead of the recommended exogamy (marrying outside the group).
## Jatis and Social Mobility
### Jati and Varna
- Jati refers to social categories based on birth, similar to varna.
- Unlike the fixed four varnas, the number of jatis was not limited.
### Classification of New Groups
- Brahmanical authorities created jatis for new groups they encountered or for occupational categories not fitting into the varna system.
- Examples include people living in forests (nishadas) or occupational groups like goldsmiths (suvarnakaras).
### Guilds or Shrenis
- Jatis with common occupations often formed guilds (shrenis).
### Historical Records of Guilds
- A fifth-century inscription in Mandasor (Madhya Pradesh) records the history of a guild of silk weavers who migrated from Gujarat to Mandasor.
- The guild invested their wealth in building a temple for the sun god.
## Beyond the Four Varnas: Integration
### Diverse Populations
- Many populations in the subcontinent had social practices not influenced by Brahmanical ideas.
- These groups were often described in Sanskrit texts as uncivilized or animal-like.
### Examples of Excluded Groups
- Forest-dwellers like the nishadas and nomadic pastoralists were viewed with suspicion.
- People speaking non-Sanskritic languages were labeled as mlechchhas.
### Sharing of Ideas
- Despite differences, there was some exchange of ideas and beliefs between these groups and others.
## A Tiger-like Husband: A Story from the Mahabharata
### Summary of the Story
- The Pandavas fled into the forest and fell asleep, with Bhima keeping watch.
- A rakshasa (demon) sent his sister Hidimba to capture the Pandavas, but she fell in love with Bhima.
- Bhima killed the rakshasa and married Hidimba with his brother Yudhisthira's consent.
- Hidimba bore a son, Ghatotkacha, who promised to help the Pandavas whenever needed.
### Interpretation
- Some historians suggest "rakshasa" describes people whose practices differed from Brahmanical norms.
### Beyond the Four Varnas: Subordination and Conflict
#### Introduction
- The Brahmanas (priestly class) considered some people outside their system.
- They created a sharper social divide by classifying certain people as “untouchable”.
#### Concept of Purity and Pollution
- Some activities, especially related to rituals, were seen as sacred and “pure”.
- Pure individuals avoided food from those they labeled as “untouchable”.
- Activities like handling corpses and dead animals were considered “polluting”.
- Those who did these tasks, called chandalas, were at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
- The touch or even the sight of chandalas was seen as polluting by the upper classes.
#### The Duties of Chandalas According to Manusmriti
- Chandalas had to live outside the village.
- They used discarded utensils and wore clothes of the dead and iron ornaments.
- They couldn’t walk in villages and cities at night.
- They had to dispose of bodies without relatives and serve as executioners.
#### Observations by Chinese Pilgrims
- Fa Xian (c. fifth century CE) noted that “untouchables” had to sound a clapper in the streets so people could avoid seeing them.
- Xuan Zang (c. seventh century CE) observed that executioners and scavengers lived outside the city.
#### Examining Non-Brahmanical Texts
- Historians study non-Brahmanical texts to understand if chandalas accepted their prescribed life of degradation.
- These texts sometimes align with Brahmanical depictions, but occasionally suggest different social realities.
### The Bodhisatta as a Chandala
#### The Story from the Matanga Jataka
- The Bodhisatta (Buddha in a previous birth) was born as a chandala’s son named Matanga, outside the city of Banaras.
- He encountered Dittha Mangalika, a merchant’s daughter, who saw him and exclaimed he was inauspicious, washing her eyes.
- Her followers beat him up. In protest, he lay at her father’s house door.
- On the seventh day, they gave Dittha Mangalika to him. She took the starving Matanga back to the chandala settlement.
#### Matanga's Renunciation and Return
- Matanga renounced the world and attained spiritual powers.
- He returned to Banaras and married Dittha Mangalika.
- They had a son, Mandavya Kumara, who learned the three Vedas and provided food to 16,000 Brahmanas daily.
#### Matanga Begs for Food
- Matanga, in rags with a clay alms bowl, begged for food at his son’s doorstep.
- Mandavya refused, saying Matanga looked like an outcaste and was unworthy of alms.
- Matanga argued that those proud of their birth but ignorant do not deserve gifts, while the virtuous do.
- Angered, Mandavya had his servants throw Matanga out.
- Matanga rose in the air and disappeared.
#### Dittha Mangalika's Repentance
- Dittha Mangalika begged Matanga’s forgiveness.
- Matanga instructed her to take leftovers from his bowl and give them to Mandavya and the Brahmana
### Beyond Birth: Resources and Status
#### Introduction
- Social positions in ancient societies were influenced by access to economic resources.
- Various groups like slaves, landless laborers, hunters, fisherfolk, pastoralists, peasants, village headmen, craftspersons, merchants, and kings emerged with different roles and statuses.
#### Gendered Access to Property
- **Mahabharata Episode**: Yudhisthira loses everything, including his wife Draupadi, in a dice game.
- **Ownership Issues**: Stories and texts like the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras discuss ownership and inheritance.
- **Manusmriti on Inheritance**:
- Sons inherit equally, with a special share for the eldest.
- Women could not claim a share of the paternal estate.
- Women retained stridhana (marriage gifts), inheritable by their children.
- Manusmriti advised women against hoarding family property without their husband's permission.
- **Upper-Class Women**: Evidence shows that while some wealthy women had access to resources, men generally controlled land, cattle, and money, increasing social differences between men and women.
#### Draupadi’s Question
- **Yudhisthira's Dilemma**: Draupadi asked if Yudhisthira lost himself before staking her.
- **Two Opinions**:
- Even if Yudhisthira lost himself, he could still stake his wife.
- An unfree man (Yudhisthira) could not stake another person.
- **Resolution**: Dhritarashtra restored freedom to the Pandavas and Draupadi.
#### Means of Acquiring Wealth
- **For Men (Manusmriti)**: Inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work, and gifts.
- **For Women (Manusmriti)**: Gifts at marriage, from brother, mother, father, subsequent gifts, and from an affectionate husband.
#### Varna and Access to Property
- **Brahmanical Texts**: Regulated access to wealth based on varna (caste).
- **Occupations and Wealth**:
- Shudras: Servitude.
- First three varnas (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas): Various occupations.
- Brahmanas and Kshatriyas often depicted as wealthy, though poor Brahmanas were occasionally mentioned.
- **Buddhist Critique**: Early Buddhism rejected the idea of status based on birth and varna order.
- **Buddhist Story**:
- **Dialogue between King Avantiputta and Kachchana**:
- Questioned the Brahmana claim of superiority.
- A wealthy Shudra could command respect and servitude from all varnas.
- Concluded that wealth equaled varnas in practical terms.
#### Sharing Wealth: An Alternative Social Scenario
- **Generosity Respected**: In ancient Tamilakam, generosity and sharing wealth were valued.
- **Chiefs and Patrons**: Chiefs were patrons of poets and bards, who praised them in Sangam anthologies.
- **Social Expectations**: While differences existed between rich and poor, those with resources were expected to share them.
### The Poor Generous Chief
**Description from Puranaruru (Tamil Sangam Literature, c. 1st Century CE)**
- A bard describes his generous patron to other poets.
- The patron does not have wealth to give away daily but is not petty enough to refuse help.
- The patron lives in Irantai and is generous, always fighting hunger among bards.
- The bard invites other poets to join him and seek help from the patron.
- When requested, the patron will go to the village blacksmith and ask for a long spear for war to provide for the poets.
### Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract
**Buddhist Understanding of Social Inequalities (Sutta Pitaka)**
- Initially, humans lived in an idyllic state without fully evolved forms or developed plants, taking only what they needed.
- Over time, greed, vindictiveness, and deceit led to social conflict.
- To manage conflicts, humans decided to choose a leader (mahasammata) to censure wrongdoings and banish offenders in return for a proportion of rice.
- This suggests kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as payment for the king's services.
- The myth implies that social systems were created by humans and could be changed by them in the future.
### Handling Texts
**Historians and the Mahabharata**
- Historians consider the language (Prakrit, Pali, Tamil, Sanskrit) and the type of texts (mantras, stories) when analyzing ancient texts.
- They study the authors, intended audience, date, and place of composition.
- This detailed analysis helps historians understand the historical significance of texts.
### Language and Content of the Mahabharata
**Sanskrit Language and Content Classification**
- The Mahabharata is in simpler Sanskrit compared to the Vedas or prashastis, likely making it widely understood.
- Historians classify the content into narrative sections (stories) and didactic sections (social norms).
- The didactic sections include stories, and the narrative sections often contain social messages.
- The Mahabharata is considered a dramatic story with didactic parts added later.
### The Term Itihasa
**Meaning and Implications**
- Itihasa means “thus it was,” often translated as “history.”
- Uncertainty exists about whether a real war described in the epic happened.
- Some historians believe an actual conflict is remembered in the epic, while others find no corroborative evidence.
### Author(s) and Dates
**Composition and Development**
- The original story was likely composed by charioteer-bards (sutas) who celebrated Kshatriya warriors’ achievements.
- From the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas began writing the story.
- By 200 BCE - 200 CE, the worship of Vishnu grew, and Krishna became identified with Vishnu.
- Between 200 and 400 CE, didactic sections similar to the Manusmriti were added.
- The text, initially under 10,000 verses, grew to about 100,000 verses and is attributed to the sage Vyasa.
### The Search for Convergence
**Archaeological Evidence and Historical Context**
- B.B. Lal's excavation at Hastinapura (1951-52) found occupational levels that might correlate with the Kuru kingdom in the epic.
- Mud and mud-brick houses from the twelfth-seventh centuries BCE, and burnt brick houses with drainage systems from the sixth-third centuries BCE were found.
- It is uncertain whether descriptions of cities in the epic were added later or were poetic imagination.
**Polyandry in the Mahabharata**
- Draupadi’s marriage to the Pandavas is a notable instance of polyandry.
- Historians suggest polyandry may have been prevalent among ruling elites at some point.
- The multiple explanations in the text indicate that polyandry fell out of favor with Brahmanas over time.
- Polyandry was prevalent in the Himalayan region and could have arisen from a shortage of women during wars.
- Creative literature often requires narrative elements that do not necessarily reflect social realities.
By breaking down these sections with clear titles and subtitles, we cover the detailed content in an easy-to-understand manner without skipping any important points.
### Hastinapura Description
- **City of Hastinapura**:
- Described in the Adi Parvan of the Mahabharata.
- Bursting like the ocean.
- Packed with hundreds of mansions.
- Displayed with gateways, arches, and turrets.
- Splendour likened to Great Indra's city.
### Draupadi’s Marriage
- **Drupada's Competition**:
- Drupada, the king of Panchala, held a competition.
- Challenge: String a bow and hit a target.
- Winner would marry his daughter, Draupadi.
- **Arjuna's Victory**:
- Arjuna won the competition.
- Draupadi garlanded Arjuna.
- **Pandavas’ Return**:
- The Pandavas returned with Draupadi to their mother, Kunti.
- Kunti, without seeing them, asked them to share what they had got.
- Realizing her mistake, she saw Draupadi but her command could not be violated.
- **Decision and Explanation**:
- Yudhisthira decided Draupadi would be their common wife after much deliberation.
- Drupada protested initially.
- Seer Vyasa explained that the Pandavas were incarnations of Indra and Draupadi was destined to be their wife.
- Vyasa also mentioned a woman who prayed to Shiva for a husband five times, reborn as Draupadi.
- **Drupada’s Consent**:
- Drupada, convinced by Vyasa's stories, consented to the marriage.
### A Dynamic Text
- **Growth of the Mahabharata**:
- The Mahabharata grew beyond the Sanskrit version.
- Versions were written in various languages over centuries.
- Ongoing dialogue between peoples, communities, and writers.
- Regional stories and circulated tales were incorporated into the epic.
- **Retelling and Creative Narration**:
- Central story often retold in different ways.
- Episodes depicted in sculpture and painting.
- Provided themes for performing arts like plays, dance, and narrations.
### Mahashweta Devi's Alternative Narrative
- **Episode Transformation**:
- Contemporary Bengali writer Mahashweta Devi transforms an episode from the Mahabharata.
- Raises questions on which the Sanskrit text is silent.
- **Original Episode**:
- Duryodhana plotted to kill the Pandavas by inviting them to stay in a house of lac, which he planned to set on fire.
- Pandavas, forewarned, dug a tunnel to escape.
- Kunti arranged for a feast where a nishada woman and her five sons came.
- The Pandavas escaped, setting the house on fire.
- People thought the Pandavas were dead when the bodies of the nishada woman and her sons were found.
- **Mahashweta Devi's Story “Kunti O Nishadi”**:
- Set in a forest where Kunti retires after the war.
- Kunti reflects on her past, confesses her failings, and talks with the earth.
- A nishadi woman often listens to Kunti.
- **Confrontation**:
- Animals flee the forest, and the nishadi speaks to Kunti about the house of lac.
- The nishadi recalls her mother-in-law and five sons who were killed.
- Accuses Kunti of not remembering the innocent lives lost to save herself and her sons.
- Flames draw nearer; the nishadi escapes to safety while Kunti remains.
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